Process Analysis by AAVOS International

Inline : For inline analysis, a sensor can be placed in a process vessel or stream of flowing material to conduct the analysis. Online : Analysers which are connected to a process, and conduct automatic sampling, can be called online (or on-line) analysers or sometimes inline (or in-line) analysers. This means that online and inline analyses permit continuous process control. Offline and atline analyses, on the other hand, are characterized by manual sampling followed by discontinuous sample preparation, measurement and evaluation. The material properties can change during the time between sampling and the availability of the results, so direct process control is not possible. A bypass line is recommended in terms of process control to prevent a shutdown or lost product. If you have to clean, calibrate or validate ypour analyser a lot, then a bypass is the best solution.

Continuous emission monitoring systems (CEMS) were historically used as a tool to monitor flue gas for oxygen, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide to provide information for combustion control in industrial settings.[1] They are currently[when?] used as a means to comply with air emission standards such as the United States Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) Acid Rain Program, other federal emission programs, or state permitted emission standards. Facilities employ the use of CEMS to continuously collect, record and report the required emissions data. The standard CEM system consists of a sample probe, filter, sample line (umbilical), gas conditioning system, calibration gas system, and a series of gas analyzers which reflect the parameters being monitored. Typical monitored emissions include: sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen chloride, airborne particulate matter, mercury, volatile organic compounds, and oxygen. CEM systems can also...

One of the ever-present waste streams in the oil and gas industry which creates problems for most companies is Slop Oil. “Slop Oil”, by definition, is considered crude oil which is emulsified with water and solids rendering it a waste stream that cannot be sold down the pipeline. Slop Oil, or secondary oil, is found in evaporation ponds, sludge pits, storage tanks, and permitted commercial disposal facilities. Slop Oil is not environmentally friendly! Current options for disposal are expensive and hard to find. This leads to Slop Oils being stored in pits or tanks, wherever possible, until a better solution presents itself. Our technology is timely, given the environmentally sensitive market as well as the cost implications of the disposal of residual oil production and hydrocarbon waste. Advanced research and technology is the answer. After four years of intense research and development, we are now efficiently able to process Slop Oil to pipeline specifications. This is achieved by ...

Viscosity is a measure of the resistance of a fluid which is being deformed by either shear stress (schuifspanning) or tensile stress (trekspanning) . In everyday terms (and for fluids only), viscosity is “thickness” or “internal friction”. Thus, water is “thin”, having a lower viscosity, while honey is “thick”, having a higher viscosity. Put simply, the less viscous the fluid is, the greater its ease of movement (fluidity).

Reid vapor pressure (RVP) is a common measure of the volatility of gasoline. It is defined as the absolute vapor pressure exerted by a liquid at 100 °F (37.8 °C) as determined by the test method ASTM-D-323.

Vapor pressure or equilibrium vapor pressure is defined as the pressure exerted by a vapor in thermodynamic equilibrium with its condensedphases (solid or liquid) at a given temperature in a closed system. The equilibrium vapor pressure is an indication of a liquid's evaporation rate. It relates to the tendency of particles to escape from the liquid (or a solid). A substance with a high vapor pressure at normal temperatures is often referred to as volatile.  Vapor pressure is measured in the standard units of pressure. The International System of Units (SI) recognizes pressure as a derived unit with the dimension of force per area and designates thepascal (Pa) as its standard unit. One pascal is one newton per square meter (N·m−2 or kg·m−1·s−2).

The pour point of a liquid is the temperature at which it becomes semi solid and loses its flow characteristics. In crude oil a high pour point is generally associated with a high paraffin content, typically found in crude deriving from a larger proportion of plant material. That type of crude oil is mainly derived from a kerogen Type III. credit wiki

The upstream sector includes the searching for potential underground or underwater crude oil and natural gas fields, drilling of exploratory wells, and subsequently drilling and operating the wells that recover and bring the crude oil and/or raw natural gas to the surface. there has been a significant shift toward including unconventional gas as a part of the upstream sector, and corresponding developments in liquefied natural gas (LNG) processing and transport. The midstream sector involves the transportation (by pipeline, rail, barge, oil tanker or truck), storage, and wholesale marketing of crude or refined petroleum products. Pipelines and other transport systems can be used to move crude oil from production sites to refineries and deliver the various refined products to downstream distributors. Natural gas pipeline networks aggregate gas from natural gas purification plants and deliver it to downstream customers, such as local utilities. The downstream sector commonly ref...

Fluorescence is the emission of light by a substance that has absorbed light or other electromagnetic radiation. It is a form of luminescence. In most cases, the emitted light has a longer wavelength, and therefore lower energy, than the absorbed radiation. The most striking example of fluorescence occurs when the absorbed radiation is in the ultraviolet region of the spectrum, and thus invisible to the human eye, while the emitted light is in the visible region, which gives the fluorescent substance a distinct color that can only be seen when exposed to UV light. Fluorescent materials cease to glow immediately when the radiation source stops, unlike phosphorescence, where it continues to emit light for some time after. Fluorescence has many practical applications, including mineralogy, gemology, medicine, chemical sensors (fluorescence spectroscopy), fluorescent labelling, dyes, biological detectors, cosmic-ray detection, and, most commonly, fluorescent lamps. Fluorescence also oc...

Lignocellulose refers to plant dry matter (biomass), so called lignocellulosic biomass. It is the most abundantly available raw material on the Earth for the production of biofuels, mainly bio-ethanol. It is composed of carbohydrate polymers (cellulose, hemicellulose), and an aromatic polymer (lignin). These carbohydrate polymers contain different sugar monomers (six and five carbon sugars) and they are tightly bound to lignin. Lignocellulosic biomass can be broadly classified into virgin biomass, waste biomass and energy crops. Virgin biomass includes all naturally occurring terrestrial plants such as trees, bushes and grass. Waste biomass is produced as a low value byproduct of various industrial sectors such as agriculture (corn stover, sugarcane bagasse, straw etc.) and forestry (saw mill and paper mill discards). Energy crops are crops with high yield of lignocellulosic biomass produced to serve as a raw material for production of second generation biofuel; examples include switch...

Curing is a term in polymer chemistry and process engineering that refers to the toughening or hardening of a polymer material by cross-linking of polymer chains, brought about by electron beams, heat or chemical additives.

In materials science, polymorphism is the ability of a solid material to exist in more than one form or crystal structure

Tacticity is simply the way pendant groups are arranged along the backbone chain of a polymer

For the retrieval of trace gas amounts, the technique of Differential Optical Absorption Spectroscopy (DOAS) is a well established remote sensing method which has been developed and improved over the last decades. It was first used for measurements conducted with ground-based instruments, but can also be applied when observing the atmosphere from space. The DOAS method makes use of the individual absorption characteristics of molecules on the mathematical basis of Lambert-Beer’s absorption law. The technique enables to observe atmospheric trace gases such as ozone and NO2. For this the absorption in visible and near ultraviolet sunlight scattered in the zenith is measured. So called slant columns, that are the column densities along the light path can be derived. The fundamental difference between typical radiative transfer calculations and the point of view in the DOAS method is the way how the light is traced through the atmosphere. DOAS type measurements can be conducted either us...

Non-dispersive infrared sensors (NDIR) are simple spectroscopic devices often used as gas detectors for air pollution monitoring in the field. The non-dispersive instrument does not scan the spectrum, but instead is designed to look at that portion of the IR spectrum where the pollutant shows peak absorption. Gas concentration is measured electro-optically by its absorption of a specific wavelength in the infrared region. The NDIR detector has an optical filter in front of it that eliminates all light except the wavelength that the selected gas molecules can absorb. A number of simple, rugged non-dispersive instruments have been designed for quantitative infrared analysis. They can be simple filter- or non-dispersive photometers, or instruments that employs filter wedges in lieu of a dispersing element. Some other instruments do not have wavelength selection device at all. Another type of IR analyser that is popular for analysing carbon monoxide in ambient air uses the gas-filter c...

FTIR is an advanced type of IR technique which measures all infrared frequencies simultaneously and can be used for both quantitative and qualitative measurements. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometers are cheaper than conventional spectrometers because building of interferometers is easier than the fabrication of a monochromator. Measurement of a single spectrum is faster for the FTIR technique because the information at all frequencies is collected simultaneously. This allows multiple spectral absorption samples to be collected and averaged together resulting in an improvement in sensitivity. Today, virtually all modern IR spectrometers are FTIR instruments favoured for their speed, high resolution, sensitivity, and unparalleled wavelength precision and accuracy. The majority of commercially available Fourier transform infrared instruments are based on the Michelson interferometer shown in Figure 4-2. Michelson interferometers provide a significant sensitivity advant...

Spectroscopy are optical methods for analysis of gaseous compounds. There are many techniques for gas analysis that involve observations of the electromagnetic radiation spectrum. The relevant part of the spectrum consists of: X-rays, ultraviolet, visible light and infrared. The ultraviolet, visible and IR regions are particularly relevant to gaseous air pollutant analysis, whereas X-ray methods are more relevant to particulate-phase pollutants and will not be discussed here.

The thermal conductivity detector (TCD), also known as a Katharometer, is a bulk property detector and a chemical specific detector commonly used in gas chromatography.[1] This detector senses changes in the thermal conductivity of the column effluent and compares it to a reference flow of carrier gas. Since most compounds have a thermal conductivity much less than that of the common carrier gases of helium or hydrogen, when an analyte elutes from the column the effluent thermal conductivity is reduced, and a detectable signal is produced. The TCD consists of an electrically heated filament in a temperature-controlled cell. Under normal conditions there is a stable heat flow from the filament to the detector body. When an analyte elutes and the thermal conductivity of the column effluent is reduced, the filament heats up and changes resistance. This resistance change is often sensed by a  Wheatstone bridge  circuit which produces a measurable voltage change. The column ...

Chromatography is a collection of techniques used to analyze and separate mixtures of compound in complex matrices. Chromatography is a system that consists of a stationary phase (usually solid material) and a mobile phase (gas or liquid). The sample is introduced in the mobile phase which passes over the stationary phase. Substances are separated due to their difference in interaction with the stationary phase. Compounds that adhere easily to the stationary phase will move slowly in the chromatographic system, compounds less adherent, will move faster and the different compounds will be separated. At the end of a chromatographic system there is a detector. GC detectors can be of various types, some general (multipurpose) or more specific depending on the compounds to analyze. In gas chromatography the stationary mobile phase is an inert gas (He, H2 and N2). The stationary phase is embedded in a column and can be of various materials depending on your analytes. The column can a ...

Dehydrogenation is a chemical reaction that involves the removal of hydrogen from an organic molecule. It is the reverse of hydrogenation. Dehydrogenation is an important reaction because it converts alkanes, which are relatively inert and thus low-valued, to olefins, which are reactive and thus more valuable. Alkenes are precursors to aldehydes, alcohols, polymers, and aromatics.[1] Dehydrogenation processes are used extensively to produce aromatics and styrene in the petrochemical industry. Such processes are highly endothermic and require temperatures of 500 °C and above.[1][2] Dehydrogenation also converts saturated fats to unsaturated fats. Enzymes that catalyze dehydrogenation are called dehydrogenases. credits wiki

Hydrogenation – to treat with hydrogen – is a chemical reaction between molecular hydrogen (H2) and another compound or element, usually in the presence of a catalyst such as nickel, palladium or platinum. The process is commonly employed to reduce or saturate organic compounds. Hydrogenation typically constitutes the addition of pairs of hydrogen atoms to a molecule, often an alkene. Catalysts are required for the reaction to be usable; non-catalytic hydrogenation takes place only at very high temperatures. Hydrogenation reduces double and triple bonds in hydrocarbons. credits wiki Definition of Hydrogenation Hydrogenated fats and oils are common terms you may have encountered at your local grocery store. On food labels, you can likely find at least one container that reads 'does not contain hydrogenated fats.' Although there are several nutritional warnings against these types of fats, have you ever wondered how these are generated in the first place? Well, the ans...

Steam reforming is a method for producing hydrogen, carbon monoxide, or other useful products from hydrocarbon fuels such as natural gas. This is achieved in a processing device called a reformer which reacts steam at high temperature with the fossil fuel. The steam methane reformer is widely used in industry to make hydrogen. There is also interest in the development of much smaller units based on similar technology to produce hydrogen as a feedstock for fuel cells. Small-scale steam reforming units to supply fuel cells are currently the subject of research and development, typically involving the reforming of methanol, but other fuels are also being considered such as propane, gasoline, autogas, diesel fuel, and ethanol. credits wiki

Syngas, or synthesis gas, is a fuel gas mixture consisting primarily of hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and very often some carbon dioxide. The name comes from its use as intermediates in creating synthetic natural gas (SNG)[1] and for producing ammonia or methanol. Syngas is usually a product of gasification and the main application is electricity generation. Syngas is combustible and often used as a fuel of internal combustion engines. It has less than half the energy density of natural gas. Syngas can be produced from many sources, including natural gas, coal, biomass, or virtually any hydrocarbon feedstock, by reaction with steam (steam reforming), carbon dioxide (dry reforming) or oxygen (partial oxidation). Syngas is a crucial intermediate resource for production of hydrogen, ammonia, methanol, and synthetic hydrocarbon fuels. Syngas is also used as an intermediate in producing synthetic petroleum for use as a fuel or lubricant via the Fischer–Tropsch process and previously the ...

Distillation is the purification of gases or liquids by taking advantage of their boiling point differences. Ethanol and water have a fairly large difference in boiling point, but only up to a certain concentration. At 1 atmosphere and about 95 volume % ethanol, the boiling point of this mixture has a boiling point less than either of the pure components and is known to be a minimum boiling azeotrope. The earliest known distillation was between ethanol and water. For millennia, man has made spirits, or "strong drink", from the fermentation of various sugars and starches. These early distillations were typically a single stage, or more simply a pot boiling and a condenser to capture the vapors. This single stage would yield an alcohol content of 40 volume % ethanol (or 80 proof), hence your typical whiskey or brandy. If done twice you can improve the ethanol content further to 70 volume % ethanol, which is your typical cognac before aging. For fuels ethano...

Fermentation is a metabolic process that consumes sugar in the absence of oxygen. The products are organic acids, gases, or alcohol. It occurs in yeast and bacteria, and also in oxygen-starved muscle cells, as in the case of lactic acid fermentation. The science of fermentation is known as zymology. In microorganisms, fermentation is the primary means of producing energy by the degradation of organic nutrients anaerobically.[1] Humans have used fermentation to produce drinks and beverages since the Neolithic age. For example, fermentation is used for preservation in a process that produces lactic acid as found in such sour foods as pickled cucumbers, kimchi and yogurt (see fermentation in food processing), as well as for producing alcoholic beverages such as wine (see fermentation in winemaking) and beer. Fermentation can even occur within the stomachs of animals, including humans. credits wiki

Hydrolysis; from Greek hydro-, meaning 'water', and lysis, meaning 'to unbind') usually means the cleavage of chemical bonds by the addition of water. When a carbohydrate is broken into its component sugar molecules by hydrolysis (e.g. sucrose being broken down into glucose and fructose), this is termed saccharification. Generally, hydrolysis or saccharification is a step in the degradation of a substance OR in the language of chemistry "The reaction of cation and anion or both with water molecule due to which pH is altered, cleavage of H-O bond in hydrolysis takes place." Hydrolysis can be the reverse of a condensation reaction in which two molecules join together into a larger one and eject a water molecule. Thus hydrolysis adds water to break down, whereas condensation builds up by removing water and any other solvents. credits wiki

A flame ionization detector (FID) is a scientific instrument that measures the concentration of organic species in a gas stream. It is frequently used as a detector in gas chromatography. Standalone FIDs can also be used in applications such as landfill gas monitoring, fugitive emissions monitoring and internal combustion engine emissions measurement in stationary or portable instruments. The operation of the FID is based on the detection of ions formed during combustion of organic compounds in a hydrogen flame. The generation of these ions is proportional to the concentration of organic species in the sample gas stream. FID measurements are usually reported as "as methane", meaning as the quantity of methane which would produce the same response. Hydrocarbons generally have molar response factors that are equal to the number of carbon atoms in their molecule, while oxygenates and other species that contain heteroatoms tend to have a lower response factor. Carbon mono...

The Beer–Lambert law, also known as Beer's law, the Lambert–Beer law, or the Beer–Lambert–Bouguer law relates the attenuation of light to the properties of the material through which the light is travelling. The law is commonly applied to chemical analysis measurements and used in understanding attenuation in physical optics, for photons, neutrons or rarefied gases. In mathematical physics, this law arises as a solution of the BGK equation. The law was discovered by Pierre Bouguer before 1729. It is often attributed to Johann Heinrich Lambert, who cited Bouguer's Essai d'optique sur la gradation de la lumière (Claude Jombert, Paris, 1729)—and even quoted from it—in his Photometria in 1760. Lambert's law stated that absorbance of a material sample is directly proportional to its thickness (path length). Much later, August Beer discovered another attenuation relation in 1852. Beer's law stated that absorbance is proportional to the concentrations of the attenua...

In petrochemistry, petroleum geology and organic chemistry, cracking is the process whereby complex organic molecules such as kerogens or long-chain hydrocarbons are broken down into simpler molecules such as light hydrocarbons, by the breaking of carbon-carbon bonds in the precursors. The rate of cracking and the end products are strongly dependent on the temperature and presence of catalysts. Cracking is the breakdown of a large alkane into smaller, more useful alkanes and alkenes. Simply put, hydrocarbon cracking is the process of breaking a long-chain of hydrocarbons into short ones. This process might require high temperatures and high pressure. More loosely, outside the field of petroleum chemistry, the term "cracking" is used to describe any type of splitting of molecules under the influence of heat, catalysts and solvents, such as in processes of destructive distillation or pyrolysis. Fluid catalytic cracking produces a high yield of petrol and LPG, while hydr...